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Working as Librarians

9th August 2019 by Revised Edition July 2019 3 Comments

What do librarians do? The profession once known as ‘librarianship’ has now taken on many different names, and consequently, the role of librarians has also changed in some cases. No longer are librarians simply the custodians of shelves of books, but they also have to look after electronic resources too. So, some librarian posts are…>

PhD Vlog Week 3: Abigail Robertson

7th August 2019 by jobs.ac.uk Leave a Comment

In this week’s vlog Abigail shares tips how to stayed organised during the PhD application process. Watch this vlog to find out more! Ready to start your PhD journey? Search for PhDs here

Senior Lecturer in Respiratory Infection and Vaccinology

7th August 2019 by Revised Edition July 2019 Leave a Comment

Dr Daniela Ferreira, Senior Lecturer in Respiratory Infection and Vaccinology – Faculty of Clinical Sciences and International Public Health, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Dr Daniela Ferreira It all began when Dolly the sheep was cloned and the human genome was sequenced. These remarkable events were all over the news in Brazil and triggered within…>

PhD Vlog Week 4: Abigail Robertson

5th August 2019 by jobs.ac.uk Leave a Comment

In week 4 it is conference week! Abigail shows insight into how to prepare for conferences, and presenting at a conference! Ready to start your PhD journey? Search for PhDs here

Post PhD, Where Do I Go From Here?

2nd August 2019 by Lucie Johnston 7 Comments

This article focuses on a difficult time in every academic’s career: what to do post PhD. Congratulations, you have had your viva and your PhD has been awarded, it feels as though you are at the end of a huge journey. However, it is also a time of uncertain futures. There are many paths open…>

Top Ten Tips for Preparing for Academic Interviews

2nd August 2019 by Lucie Johnston 3 Comments

You will have at least a few days for preparing for academic interviews, here are ten tips on how to maximise your chances of getting that job! Who are your interviewers? When you receive your letter offering an interview, it will almost certainly give the names of those people on the interview panel. For a…>

Tips For Dealing With Pre-Interview Nerves

31st July 2019 by Suzi Warren 1 Comment

Most people dread job interviews. It is perfectly normal to feel pre-interview nerves since there is a lot riding on the outcome. But don’t panic. By following a few simple techniques and preparing properly, you can reduce your stress levels to help you perform to the best of your abilities. Positive thinking Being offered an…>

Work in Australia – Country profile

30th July 2019 by jobs.ac.uk Leave a Comment

Careers in Australia

Explore new career opportunities in Australia with jobs.ac.uk – a range of roles are available from professional services to academic roles.

Find out more and apply today.

Country fact file

Capital city: Canberra
Population: 26.6 million as of March 2024
Government: Federal parliamentary democracy, constitutional monarchy
Currency: Australian dollar (A$, AUD)
Main languages: English
Main religions: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam

Country profile

The Commonwealth of Australia is made up of six states: New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, and the island state of Tasmania. Each has its constitution and the power to pass laws, although in the event of legal conflict state law is superseded by Commonwealth law.

In addition, there are ten territories which have differing degrees of autonomy, but only two of them (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory) are on the mainland.

Culture

With a diverse mix of cultures from the indigenous aboriginal people to the early European settlers and the more recent Asian migrants, modern Australia is very much multicultural. This is reflected in the country’s pastimes, lifestyle and customs.

Popular activities

It is estimated that over 85% of people in Australia live within 50 kilometres of the coast, and the beach is certainly central to social life across the country.

Surfing and other water sports are particularly popular, and the beach is also a great place to meet up with friends. Rightly considered to be sports-mad, Australians are characteristically active and sports clubs are easily found in most areas. Gym training, cycling and golf are among the top pastimes.

Watching sports is also a cultural fixture, with the performance of the Australian cricket and rugby teams a particular source of national pride.

Food and drink

Think of Australian cuisine and immediately you get an image of beers and barbecues. It’s a stereotype, but the ‘barbie’ remains a cultural icon.

Restaurants draw on the cosmopolitan nature of the population for influences and fusion cuisine is a growing trend. As such a large island nation, Australia produces a huge amount of seafood.

Traditional ‘bush tucker’ influences are also becoming more mainstream, with kangaroo, emu and crocodile meat growing in popularity. Braver tourists may wish to sample a bogong moth or a witchetty grub, although in reality, these are yet to catch on with modern Australians!

With every state home to vineyards, Australia is among the world’s top wine producers. It also has a real coffee culture, believed to originate from the large numbers of Greek and Italian immigrants who settled in Australia in the early part of the twentieth century.

Languages

Australia does not have an official language, but the vast majority of people speak English. However, only 76.8% of households spoke English as the sole language, again demonstrating the multicultural nature of the country.

Mandarin, Italian and Arabic ranked among the most spoken minority languages. It is estimated that there were once over 400 aboriginal languages spoken in Australia, but just 15 survive in active use today.

Accents

Compared to British English, there are relatively few variations in the Australian accent. These differences tend to be dictated more by social factors than geography, although there are some regional characteristics too. Linguists categorise the Australian accent into three types:

General – the most commonly occurring accent, typified by someone like Hugh Jackman
Broad – widely spoken in rural areas, with Paul Hogan a good example
Cultivated – less common among younger Australians; Geoffrey Rush speaks with a cultivated accent

Weather

True to its sunny reputation, the majority of Australia experiences temperate weather for most of the year. The north is warm virtually all the time, while the southern states are cooler in winter but rarely reach freezing temperatures.

Surprisingly, Australia does have snowfall on higher ground in winter, meaning that there is skiing on offer in the mountainous areas of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.

Safety and Security

Australia is generally a safe place, with low crime rates compared to other developed countries. Petty criminals such as pickpockets and thieves may target tourists, particularly in urban areas, so remain alert to the possibility.

The wildlife of Australia has a famously deadly reputation, with varieties of spiders, snakes, jellyfish and sharks all reported as capable of killing humans. In reality, the risk from these creatures is very low – just make sure you follow the advice when walking in the outback or swimming in the sea.

The extremes of Australian weather are probably a greater danger than its wildlife. In the heat of summer, it’s important to stay hydrated, to carry water when travelling and to keep applying sunblock. Wildfires are also a potential hazard in hot periods, while in the cyclone season from November to April, the north of the country can also experience floods.

System structure

Schooling in Australia is governed by the individual states. Generally, education is compulsory for children aged from around 5 to 15, although some states require a further two years through to the age of 17.

The compulsory period is divided into primary and secondary school, then students may choose to move on to education in universities or vocational training facilities. Educational standards are maintained through the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

Academic year

The Australian academic year runs from January to December and is usually split into four terms. Government schools in each state have slightly different term dates, and private schools may also structure their academic year differently.

Higher education

Sometimes referred to as tertiary education, Australian universities offer a complete range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses.

Overseen by the national regulator TEQSA, but operating as independent institutions, they have a hugely cosmopolitan feel, with staff and students travelling from all over the world to live, work and study in Australia.

With the prestigious Group of Eight institutions regularly featuring among the top-ranked in the world, Australian universities are showing increasing ambition to compete with the best internationally.

Funding

Universities in Australia charge tuition fees, although some students are supported by Commonwealth grants. In 2014, the government announced a plan to remove the cap on tuition fees and enable true competition between universities.

To pay their way, students generally apply for a government loan through the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP), and repay it through deductions to their wages after graduation.

Courses

As in most countries, Australian universities offer a variety of bachelor, master and doctoral degrees (levels 7 to 10 of the AQF). However, it is quite common for students to enrol in a double or combined course at undergraduate level, leading to the award of two bachelor’s degrees.

For information about the type of courses available, visit the MyUniversity website.

Research

Research in Australia is currently the subject of a government push to raise standards. Led by the Australian Research Council (ARC), higher education will be expected to contribute to the development of a truly world-class research environment.

A significant budget has been set aside to attract and retain talented researchers from across Australia and worldwide to deliver on these ambitious goals.

Vocational education

As an alternative to university, young people can choose to take vocational qualifications when they finish school. These courses usually cover levels 1 to 6 of the AQF, although in some states it is possible to gain higher education qualifications through vocational training institutions.

For more information about courses, visit the MySkills website.

Primary and secondary education

There are three main types of schools available in Australia:

State open schools – open to all students within their catchment area on a first-come, first-served basis
State selective schools – open to a wider catchment subject to the completion of entry exams, although students on temporary resident visas may not attend
Private schools – generally consist of fee paying independent or religious institutions

Government schools usually follow the Australian Curriculum, and although private schools are not obliged to implement it, many do use the same scheme as a framework.

Preschool and childcare options

Australia has a good choice of care provision for children below school age.

Geographical variation

Australia is considered to have one of the best standards of living in the world with a relatively low price tag, although costs have increased in recent years and some expats are surprised to find that their spending power is not as great as they had anticipated.

As in most countries, the larger cities such as Melbourne, Sydney, Perth and Adelaide are more expensive than rural areas. However, the backpacker tradition remains strong in Australia and there are always bargains to be found.

Accommodation

With no shortage of space available, accommodation in Australia is predominantly detached housing or bungalows, although there are more apartments and flats (known as units) in the cities.

For academic jobs, many universities provide accommodation for international staff, but this is less common in other industries.

If your move to Australia becomes long-term or permanent, you may wish to purchase a property. Like many countries, Australia has suffered a house price dip in recent years, but prices are beginning to recover.

As well as direct sales, property auctions are quite common in Australia, so contact a local estate agent to find out more about buying property in your area.

Rental deposit

While rents can be freely negotiated between landlords and tenants, most Australian states have restrictions on how many weeks’ rent can be requested in advance or as a deposit.

Letting agents will be able to advise you on the law in each state. Once a rental cost is agreed upon, it cannot be changed without the tenant’s consent within the first 12 months.

Council rates

Council rates are charged to cover the cost of local services such as waste disposal and road maintenance. The way they are calculated depends on the state, but typically it is based on the value of the property.

Utilities

On top of your accommodation and rates, you will need to budget for utilities including water, gas, electricity, telephone and internet. Again, utility supply varies from state to state.

In some areas, there is only one supplier available, but in others, there are several companies providing services.

If you have several options, use a website like youcompare.com.au to shop around for the best deal.

TV

Australia no longer has a TV licence system. Several networks are broadcasting free to air channels, while paid cable and satellite services are also available.

Healthcare and medical costs

Healthcare in Australia is available through the Medicare scheme. Funded by a combination of private contributions, government subsidy and a PAYG levy on workers’ earnings, it gives Australian citizens, permanent residents and visitors from countries with reciprocal care agreements access to a range of primary services.

The Medicare levy is a fixed percentage for much of the population, although low-income workers may be eligible for discounted rates. Higher earners may also be required to pay a surcharge to their Medicare levy.

Although the standard of care is good, Medicare does not cover all healthcare services, so make sure you check what you are entitled to. Private health insurance can also be arranged in Australia and usually covers a wider range of services.

The government may offer rebates to people who are eligible for Medicare but also hold private cover.

Shopping

Australian shops cater for a wide and diverse consumer base ranging from locals to tourists, and choice is excellent, particularly in the major cities.

Prices are not as low as they once were, particularly not for international brands, but healthy competition between retailers means that shopping around really pays off.

Goods and Services Tax (GST)

Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a value-added tax that is typically charged on goods and services in Australia. The current rate of GST is 10%, and prices may be quoted with or without GST included so make sure you check any quotes carefully.

Price guide

Rent on a 1-bedroom apartment in the city centre – A$2,790.50 (≈£1,439.62) per month
Rent on a 1-bedroom apartment outside the city centre – A$2,245.32 (≈£1,158.36) per month
Price of apartment in city centre – A$10,998.18 (≈£5,673.96) per square metre
Price of apartment outside city centre – A$9,010.53 (≈£4,648.53) per square metre
Loaf of bread – A$3.57 (≈£1.84)
Milk (1 litre) – A$2.65 (≈£1.37)
Bottled water (1.5 litre) – A$3.03 (≈£1.56)
Draught beer (0.5 litre) – A$6.41 (≈£3.64)
Packet of cigarettes – A$38.00 (≈£19.60)
Petrol (1 litre) – A$2.16 (≈£1.11)
Cinema ticket – A$21.25 (≈£10.96)

Source: www.numbeo.com (accessed August 2023)

Budgeting and savings

If you are looking to save while you are in Australia, keep an eye on the Savings Guide website for budgeting and money saving tips. Although not yet a comprehensive resource, Money Saving Aussie may also help you find the best deals on utilities and other regular expenses.

Driving

The majority of roads in Australia are well-maintained and of excellent quality, and driving can be a great way to see some of the country’s natural beauty. However, in some areas of the Outback driving can become difficult as roads may revert to gravel tracks, so 4×4 vehicles are recommended if you want to explore these places.

Distances are usually given in kilometres, and in Australia, you drive on the left-hand side of the road.

If you hold a driving licence issued in another country, you are usually allowed to drive on it for three months as a visitor, although you may be required to provide an International Driving Permit or English translation of your documentation first.

However, as the law varies from state to state, you should contact the relevant Road and Traffic Authority before driving in Australia, particularly if you are planning a road trip or driving tour across several states.

Taxis

Taxis can be found in virtually every town and city across Australia. Legitimate licensed taxis are marked and the driver’s photo ID should be displayed in the cab. Although useful for short hops, taxis are usually metered so for longer journeys it is often cheaper to travel by coach or train.

For a rough guide to prices, visit the Taxi Fare Calculator website.

Coaches

Coach services such as those provided by Greyhound Australia remain a popular and fairly cheap means of intercity travel.

Particularly popular with backpackers and other tourists, they are quite a sociable way of getting around.

Trains

An extensive railway network connects virtually all the major and minor towns across Australia.

Although the trains are generally considered modern, punctual and comfortable to travel on, many people are surprised to find that the network is not yet high speed – leading to lengthy journey times for such a vast continent. However, the railways remain a popular and often scenic way to travel.

To book tickets for a journey, contact the local service operator.

Australia is home to two of the world’s most famous train routes. The Indian Pacific line from Sydney to Perth, and the Ghan railway from Adelaide to Darwin cut through the heart of the continent, and are considered tourist destinations in their own right.

Air travel

The sheer size of Australia makes flying the standard method of travel between state capitals. Although costs are not as low as a few years ago, healthy competition between domestic carriers means there are bargains to be found.

To find the best deal, try a comparison website such as Flight Centre, but remember to check the price direct with the operator too before you book.

International flights to destinations around the world are also available from most of the state capitals.

Other ways to get around

Most towns and cities in Australia have an efficient public transport infrastructure. Depending on the location, these may include buses, ferries, monorails, light railways and trams.

If you are planning to visit Tasmania, the Spirit of Tasmania passenger ferries run nightly between Melbourne and Devonport and offer an alternative to flying.

Working hours

According to the National Employment Standards (NES), full-time workers in Australia are supposed to work a maximum of 38 hours per week, although they may be asked to work a reasonable number of hours above this.

Typical office hours are Monday to Friday from 9am to 5pm, but most organisations take a pragmatic approach to working hours when they can and will try to accommodate the needs of their employees.

Holidays

Holiday entitlement is also defined by the NES.

Most full-time workers are entitled to a minimum of 4 weeks of paid annual leave, and shift workers may receive an additional week. Sick leave, community service leave and long service leave are also available to many employees in Australia, however, casual workers and those outside the national workplace scheme are not covered by all of these regulations.

More information is available through the Fair Work Ombudsman website.

Public holidays

Australia has seven fixed national public holidays each year. The government of each state also has the power to declare further holiday dates, some of which are common to several states and some that are unique.

A full list of public holidays by state is available on the australia.gov.au website.

National public holiday dates

New Year’s Day: 1st January
Australia Day: 26th January
Good Friday: 19 April
Easter Monday: 29th March
Anzac Day: 25th April
Christmas Day: 25th December
Boxing Day: 26th December

Visas and eligibility to work

Australia is a very popular destination for working tourists and also incentivises the long-term immigration of workers whose professions are on the Skilled Occupation List, a list of trades considered to have a skill shortage in Australia.

However, people of most nationalities need a visa to visit, live or work in the country. Australia has a large number of different types of visas, so visit the Department of Immigration and Border Protection website to find out which is appropriate for you.

Tax

The Australian tax year runs from July to June. To work in Australia it is best to apply for a Tax File Number. Although not compulsory, this unique number will enable you to correctly pay tax and receive any benefits you may be entitled to.

Income tax is usually collected through a Pay As You Go (PAYG) system which deducts your contribution directly from your wages. Taxation levels depend on your earnings and residency status.

Pensions

The superannuation system, often simply referred to as ‘super’, is the primary form of retirement pension provision for workers in Australia. Most workers over the age of 18 who receive a monthly wage of over A$450 are entitled to compulsory super contributions from their employer.

These contributions must be at least 9.25% of your earnings and can be topped up by voluntary contributions. Some workers are also eligible for government contributions, while people on a low income may be able to claim the means-tested Age Pension when they retire.

Benefits

Benefits in Australia are administered by the Department of Human Services.

Foreign nationals may be entitled to some benefits, depending on their work, visa type and residency status.

Disability

Through the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, the Australian government has pledged to:

Eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities
Promote acceptance of the principle that people with disabilities have the same rights as all members of the community
Ensure as far as practicable that people with disabilities have the same rights to equality before the law as other people in the community

These commitments may include compelling employers to make reasonable adjustments in the workplace to meet the specific needs of disabled workers. For more information on disability rights in Australia, visit the Australian Human Rights Commission website.

Organisational structure

Company structures in Australia tend to be less driven by hierarchy, so distinctions between senior and managerial staff and the rest of the team can be less clear than in other countries.

While managers will ultimately be responsible for decisions, it is common to seek the opinions of the rest of the team before making them.

Teamwork is valued very highly, and staff members of all levels are regularly asked for input in meetings and strategy reviews.

Respect is gained through contribution and achievement rather than rank or status, so it is important to treat everyone equally and encourage people to take the initiative.

Management style

Australians tend to communicate in a direct and informal manner, regardless of position. Although discussions are generally brief and matter of fact, Australians can be very receptive to new approaches and ideas.

Managers appreciate directness, pragmatism and flexibility, and will expect their staff to challenge where necessary to achieve the common goal. Strong opinions are respected, even when they are not agreed with.

Workers respond positively to respect and encouragement from their bosses and like to be managed fairly and honestly, with the feeling that they are given space to work.

Formality

Australians are generally regarded as friendly and approachable, and these traits are evident in their informal approach to work.

Colleagues are almost always on first-name terms and job titles are rarely used, although if in doubt it’s usually best to wait and see how you are introduced.

Generally, communication is informal and humour is appreciated, although you should remain polite within this relaxed tone.

Relationships

Personal relationships are valued by Australian business people and introductions can get you a long way. They like to work by recommendation and referral, so making a good first impression is important, and giving out sound referrals can be a good way to build your own reputation.

Networking is key and socialising outside work can be a great way to do this, but make sure you are self-aware in these environments as many Australians don’t appreciate one-upmanship.

Correspondence

Despite the tendency for informality, Australian business letters are written in a formal style. For emails, follow the same formality guides as you would face-to-face, starting formal until you establish a relationship.

As a conversation builds you can always soften your tone, perhaps replacing the greeting ‘Dear’ with ‘Hello’ or ‘Hi’ and ‘Kind regards’ with ‘Take care’ or ‘Speak soon’.

Dress code

Despite the more casual nature of Australian business dealings, the dress code remains relatively formal in many areas.

Men typically wear a suit and tie, and women a suit or dress. However, the warm climate makes it important to strike a balance between appearance and comfort, and some businesses, particularly those in warmer areas, allow more casual attire.

If in doubt, speak to your colleagues to find out what is acceptable.

Greetings

In a business environment, most Australians exchange quick but firm handshakes with everyone present at the beginning and end of a meeting, although it is perhaps less common for two women to shake hands.

Often people are introduced by first names or progress to them very rapidly. Business cards may be exchanged but they are not essential and there is no formal process.

Punctuality

Punctuality is important as Australians like to get on with business and keep things brief. If you are running late, call to apologise so that your contacts can continue to use their time productively until you arrive.

Meetings

Meetings in Australia are usually focused on efficiency and may have a clear structure or agenda.

However, small talk before and after is commonplace. Sport is usually a good topic to begin with! The business discussions will be quite open and informal in tone, and tend to get straight to the point.

Because of this, negotiations can proceed quite quickly. Presentations should be kept short, leaving plenty of time for questions.

Avoid giving too much detail as Australians prefer to ask about the areas they are particularly interested in.

Cultural sensitivity

Australians dislike people trying to set themselves apart from the group, so always try to engage with people at a level they are comfortable with.

Class distinctions are to be avoided, so try not to comment on accents or other things which might relate to social status. The past treatment of the aboriginal people can also be a taboo topic.

Modern Australia considers itself proudly multicultural, with migrant workers, students and travellers from around the world all integrating into society with few difficulties.

Business language

Almost all business in Australia is conducted in English, but visitors should be aware that Australian English can be idiomatic and differs somewhat from the British and American forms.

Sometimes referred to as ‘Strine’, Australian English can be quite colourful, mixing aboriginal words, rhyming slang and abbreviations.

It is very common to hear Australians abbreviating names or words by adding ‘-ie’ or ‘-o’ after the first syllable – for example, ‘Robbo’, ‘brekkie’ or ‘journo’.

Australians have a reputation for being very laid back, and the country’s naturally temperate weather and outdoor lifestyle certainly help to encourage a relaxed atmosphere which values good work/life balance. With a diverse mix of cultures from the indigenous aboriginal people to the early European settlers and the more recent Asian migrants, modern Australia is very much multicultural.

Work in Bahrain – Country Profile

29th July 2019 by jobs.ac.uk 35 Comments

Work in Bahrain

Explore what is is like to live and work in Bahrain with jobs.ac.uk Bahrain Country Profile. Whether you are searching for a PhD, a career in academia, or a professional services job in higher education, you will find our latest vacancies to suit you.

Country fact file

Location: Middle East (Persian Gulf)
Capital City: Manama
Population: 8 million
Currency: BHD
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Currency: Bahraini Dinar (BHD)
Main Language: Arabic
Main Religions: Islam, Christianity

Country Profile

The Kingdom of Bahrain is a Middle East island country situated in the Persian Gulf between Saudi Arabia and Qatar, with Iran lying 124 nautical miles to the north. Bahrain is made up of an archipelago of 33 islands which are mostly desert. The capital Manama lies on Bahrain Island, the most densely populated area, with over two thirds of Bahrain’s 1.3 million people residing there. Following over a hundred years as a British Protectorate country, Bahrain officially claimed independence in 1971. It is estimated that over half of the country’s residents are non-Bahraini, mainly coming from other Arab nations and Southern Asia.

Bahrain is a Muslim country which has been ruled by the Khalifa family since 1783, with a bi-cameral legislature made up of a Chamber of Deputies elected by the people and a Shura Council appointed by the King. The cultural, religious and political divide between the ruling Sunni minority and the majority Shia population has led to long-running tension in the region, which has erupted in violent protests in recent years. Bahrain was one of the first Middle East nations to discover oil in the area and build a refinery. However, oil production has never reached the same heights as that of Saudi Arabia and Bahrain’s economy has had to diversify into other areas such as banking, finance and tourism.

Culture

Bahrain’s culture shares many similarities with those of its Arab neighbours in the Gulf region. Islamic rules govern the country’s cultural, economic and political life and those from western nations may initially find Bahrain highly conservative. However, Bahrain is regarded as relatively liberal and cosmopolitan compared with its near neighbours of Iran and Saudi Arabia, indeed its culture has been described as ‘Middle East lite’ with less restrictions on women’s rights and tolerance of other religions. Bahrainis are known to be friendly and welcoming towards expats and have a relaxed attitude towards other cultures.

Popular activities

Bahrain is a small country with a wide range of things to do. Popular pastimes include shopping -either at the country’s large air-conditioned malls or in the colourful souks (markets) – or soaking up the sun on one of Bahrain’s beautiful beaches. Football is the most popular sport along with horse-racing and the more traditional sports of gazelle and hare hunting, usually reserved for wealthier Bahrainis. The Bahrain F1 Grand Prix held at the Bahrain International Circuit is also religiously followed by residents. Bahrain also has a number of important archaeological sites which are open to tourists, such as The A’ali Burial Mounds thought to be the largest prehistoric cemetery in the world.

Food and Drink

Bahraini cuisine comprises a medley of flavours influenced by its non-national population from Iran, Lebanon, India and Saudi Arabia as well as the recent incorporation of many western cuisines. Traditional Bahraini dishes include machboos, (a dish of rice and meat) and ouzi (grilled lamb served with rice, eggs, onions, spices and mixed nuts). Flat breads, hummus and tabbouleh (a type of salad made with bulgur, tomatoes, lemon and garlic) are also Bahraini staples. In accordance with Muslim beliefs, meat is halal and pork is strictly avoided, although visitors will find pork products in cordoned off sections in some supermarkets. The end of Ramadan is celebrated by festival of Eis el-Fitr where Bahrainis eat dishes consisting of meat and fish with grains and vegetables, sweet pastries and sago.

Coffee is by far the most popular drink in Bahrain, followed by tea, soft drinks and fruit juices and smoothies. As a Muslim country, alcohol is not widely available in Bahrain and is mainly found in hotels catering to foreign visitors.

Languages

Arabic is the official language of Bahrain and is spoken by around half of the population. Among the non-Bahraini population many people speak Urdu, the official language of Pakistan and Farsi, the official language of Iran. However, Arabic – spoken by over 200 million people around the world – remains the most widely understood language in Bahrain. Bahrain’s role in international business and its considerable influx of western expats means that English is widely spoken and taught in many schools. Bahrainis speak a good level of English with two of the country’s newspapers – The Bahrain Tribune and the Gulf Daily News – written entirely in English.

Accents and Dialects

Bahraini Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in some parts of Manama and within the Shia community. The dialect differs slightly to the Modern Standard Arabic used around the world. However, standard Arabic is taught in schools and used in all formal communication. Sunni Bahrainis speak a dialect which is most similar to the urban dialect spoken in Qatar. Many Bahraini words have also been borrowed from Turkish, Hindi and English and there are distinct differences in accent between urban and rural areas.

Weather

Bahrain’s climate features extremely hot and uncomfortable summers and mild winters. During the summer months (between April and October) temperatures can reach 50°C and expats not used to such extreme weather may find it difficult to venture far from air-conditioning. In winter (between November and March) temperatures are mild, generally hovering around 10 to 20°C. Bahrain sees very little rainfall (average 70mm per year) which usually comes in short, intense downpours lasting less than an hour. Powerful sunscreen and adequate clothing coverage is a must for visitors to Bahrain.

Safety and security

Bahrain has traditionally been a very safe destination for travellers and has low rates of crime. However, recent political unrest has caused problems in the Kingdom, meaning potential visitors should be aware of any upheaval prior to travelling. It is also important to be aware of strict laws surrounding sexual relationships, which are illegal outside of marriage. Alcohol consumption, although not illegal, is limited to hotels. Drunken behaviour in public is a punishable offence which can carry a hefty fine and prison sentence.

Cost of Living

Geographical variation

The cost of living in Bahrain is comparable with other Gulf nations, with the exception of UAE – the most expensive of the Middle East countries. The general lack of taxation and high inflation have increasingly raised the price of goods and services in Bahrain so many expats will find the cost of living high compared to some western countries. However, the cost of living is entirely dependent on your lifestyle in Bahrain. The capital Manama is the priciest place to live, although expats transferring to Bahrain with their own companies generally command very high salaries and are able to live comfortably.

Accommodation

Non-nationals are not permitted to purchase property in Bahrain, so renting is the only option for expats. However, Bahrain has an impressive range of rental property, ranging from high-spec villas with pools to modern and spacious apartments. As with other wealthy Arab nations, there is almost continuous building work underway in Bahrain, where luxury apartment blocks seem to spring up at a break-neck speed.

Bahraini landlords are keen to rent to expats because they provide a steady income stream. Rental properties are concentrated in cities and urban areas (you will have great difficulty finding suitable accommodation in desert areas), and rents are higher in the more exclusive areas of Manama. Most foreign nationals tend to rent properties in compounds housing other non-natives, which usually have shared communal facilities such as swimming pools, lawns and gyms. The large presence of a number of multinationals in Bahrain means that most expats move to the region through their employer, who will arrange accommodation using a relocation agent. However, if you wish to go it alone, you can enlist the help of a letting agent such as Bahrain Property Rentals.

An expat living alone can expect to pay around 361BHD (£672) per month in Manama city centre and around 273BHD (£508) per month for a property in the suburbs. These figures can be as much as 25% higher if you require furnished accommodation.

Rental deposit

A deposit of two to three month’s rent is usually required on signing a rental agreement in Bahrain. The deposit covers damage to the property and is refunded when the tenant leaves.

Property Tax

A municipal tax or local tax (baladiya) which covers refuse collection and road maintenance is paid by all those in rented property. This tax is usually calculated at around 10% of the annual rent and is either paid to the landlord or directly to the local authority.

Utilities

Electricity and water is provided by the state-run Electricity and Water Authority (EWA). Monthly bills are usually paid to your landlord who will contact the EWA on your behalf. Houses are not supplied with gas so if you wish to cook with gas you will need to purchase cylinders through your landlord. Tap water is not safe to drink in Bahrain but you can pay to have bottled water delivered to your home.

In terms of internet access, Bahrain is one of the most-connected countries in the Middle East. Bear in mind that internet content is strictly monitored by the government. There is a range of telephone and broadband providers to choose from, such as the state-run Batelco and smaller companies such as Viva. Most expats opt for a satellite television package showing programmes from the UK and America.

The average cost of basic utilities (electricity, water, refuse) for an 85m² apartment in Bahrain is around 19.25 BHD (£35.86) per month. A telephone/broadband connection costs around 15BHD (£27.94) per month.

TV Licence

There is no TV licence fee in Bahrain. The country’s public service broadcaster, Bahrain Radio and Television Corporation (BRTC) is government owned and funded. Satellite and Pay-TV networks are hugely popular and expats will pay a higher price to receive programmes in their native language.

Healthcare and medical costs

Bahrain has a mixed public/private healthcare system offering a high standard of care with almost non-existent waiting times. The Bahraini government are keen for the country’s medical facilities to be on a par with Europe and America and have invested heavily in attracting the best healthcare professionals from overseas. However, many expats and Bahraini citizens look to other Gulf nations or the USA for more specialised treatment. The International Hospital of Bahrain, the Bahrain Specialist Hospital and the American Mission Hospital are considered to be the best hospitals in Bahrain.

Bahrain’s public health service is free or very low cost to both nationals and non-nationals. However, the majority of expats take out a private health insurance policy before moving to Bahrain, which is often provided by their employer.

Shopping

Bahrain offers a wide choice of shopping, from large air-conditioned malls to the colourful souks (market) where bargain hunters can find artisan crafts and souvenirs, jewellery, clothing, spices, fruit and vegetables. Taking in the sights and smells of Manama’s Bab el-Bahrain Souk District is a must for any visitor to Bahrain, where haggling is expected and welcomed. Duty free items such as perfume, gifts and cigarettes are very cheap, although other imported goods will come with a high price tag in the more exclusive malls.

For those too short on time to visit the souks, there is a number of large chain supermarkets such as Midway, LuLu and Jawad, which stock a wide range of reasonably-priced groceries. Alcohol – which can only be purchased in hotels and certain restaurants – can be prohibitively expensive in Bahrain.

Sales Tax

There is no value added tax (VAT) charge in Bahrain except on the sale of fuel (set at 12%). However, fuel is still vastly cheaper (19p per litre) in Bahrain than in Europe, America and Australia. Some goods may also be higher in price due to the import duty paid on them.

Price Guide

Rent 1-bedroom apartment in city centre – 361.50 BHD (£643)
Rent 1-bedroom apartment outside city centre – 273.10 BHD (£508)
Price of apartment per square metre in city centre – 759.17 BHD (£1,414.29)
Price of apartment per square metre outside city centre – 467.40 BHD (£870.73)
Loaf of bread – 0.32 BHD (£0.60)
Milk (1 litre) – 0.53 BHD (£0.99)
Bottled water (1.5 litre) – 0.27 BHD (£0.50)
Draught beer (0.5 litre) – 1.27 BHD (£2.37)
Packet of cigarettes – 1.00 BHD (£1.86)
Petrol (1 litre) – 0.10 BHD (£0.19)
Cinema ticket – 3.00 BHD (£5.59)

Source: www.numbeo.com (accessed January 2016)

Budgeting and Savings

Although salaries for qualified expats are high in Bahrain, your disposable income will depend on your lifestyle. Eating out and socialising in some of Bahrain’s hotels and restaurants can be expensive, especially when buying alcohol. So cooking and entertaining at home and shopping at the souks for cut price groceries are great ways to save money while living in Bahrain.

System Structure

The education system in Bahrain is considered one of the best in the Persian Gulf. Bahrain was the first country in the region to instigate a public school system and admit female pupils to all levels of education. Education is free to all children in Bahrain and is compulsory from age 6 to age 14, when children take the Intermediate Education Certificate examination needed to continue on to secondary school. Upon completion of secondary education, students are awarded the Tawjihi which is necessary for entry into university. Bahrain’s Ministry of Education is responsible for all sectors of public education. The majority of non-Arab expat children attend one of the many private schools in Bahrain, which teach English and a variety of other languages.

Academic Year

The academic year in Bahrain runs from September to June. Schools and universities are closed for the summer break in July and August. However, many private and international schools set their own academic calendar so it is a good idea to contact each school directly to find more information about their term dates.

Higher Education

Bahrain has 19 public and private universities and colleges, which are mainly situated in Manama. The leading universities are the University of Bahrain, Arabian Gulf University and Ahlia University. Bahrain’s higher education sector consists of publicly funded state universities and a few private institutions such as AMA International University and the Medical University of Bahrain, which both cater for overseas students. Many degree programmes are taught in Arabic, however recognising the need for globalization in education, there is now a growing number of programmes taught in English, particularly in private international institutions. Many of Bahrain’s universities are segregated by gender, so men and women study in different classrooms and campuses. The Royal University for Women is Bahrain’s first private, international university dedicated solely to the education of women.

Funding

Bahrain’s private universities charge tuition fees and the amount depends on the rate set by each institution. However, fees are low in comparison to the UK, and international students can generally expect to pay around 2,500BHD (£3,900) per year for an undergraduate degree.

Courses

Bahrain offers a wide range of Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in both its public and private universities. International and business degrees (MBA) are particularly popular, with many courses being taught in English. An undergraduate degree generally takes around three to four years to complete and a Master’s takes around two to three years. Bahrain’s universities also have many links and exchange programmes with universities worldwide.

Research

Research activities in Bahrain are strictly regulated by the government, however the country has a number of leading research universities, such as the University of Bahrain, which are committed to creating world-class research facilities. The Bahraini think tank DERASAT also promotes research activities in order to inform policy and support independent and innovative research practice.

Primary and Secondary Education

Basic education is free to all children in Bahrain and is compulsory from age six to 14. School attendance is high and the public school system is regarded as comprehensive and modern compared to other Arab nations. Children attend primary school from age six to 11, when they continue to Intermediate school. At age 14, students can opt to go to secondary school where they will complete qualifications needed to enter higher education. All public schools are segregated by gender in Bahrain.

Due to the difficulty in overcoming the language barrier and cultural differences in public schools, private schools represent the only schooling option for non-Arab expat children in Bahrain. The high number of English-speaking expats in Bahrain means that competition for private school places can be fierce, so it is a good idea to register your child as soon as you know you are moving there. There are around 30 private schools in Bahrain, dealing with most curriculums. These include British, American, Pakistani, Indian, French and Filipino. The most sought after schools are St Christopher’s and The British School for the UK curriculum, and Bahrain School and Ibn Khuldoon for American and International Baccalaureate curriculums. Fees range from 2,883 BHD (£5,836) to 7,056 BHD (£14,285) per year.

Pre-school

The majority of pre-school education in Bahrain is provided by private, fee-paying nurseries. There is a wide variety of international nurseries and kindergartens for expat parents to choose from – more information can be found here.

Geographical variation

Accommodation

An expat living alone can expect to pay around 325BHD (£658) per month in Manama city centre and around 257BHD (£520) per month for a property in the suburbs. These figures can be as much as 25% higher if you require furnished accommodation.

Rental deposit

A deposit of two to three month’s rent is usually required on signing a rental agreement in Bahrain. The deposit covers damage to the property and is refunded when the tenant leaves.

Property Tax

Utilities

Electricity and water is provided by the state-run Electricity and Water Authority (EWA). Monthly bills are usually paid to your landlord who will contact the EWA on your behalf. Houses are not supplied with gas so if you wish to cook with gas you will need to purchase cylinders through your landlord. Tap water is not safe to drink in Bahrain but you can pay to have bottled water delivered to your home.

The average cost of basic utilities (electricity, water, refuse) for an 85m² apartment in Bahrain is around 51.18 BHD (£103.63) per month. A telephone/broadband connection costs around 15.25 BHD (£30.88) per month.

TV Licence

Healthcare and medical costs

Shopping

Sales Tax

Price Guide

Rent 1-bedroom apartment in city centre – 325 BHD (£658.09)
Rent 1-bedroom apartment outside city centre – 257.05 BHD (£520.50)
Price of apartment per square metre in city centre – 578.26 BHD (£1,170.92)
Price of apartment per square metre outside city centre – 414 BHD (£838.31)
Loaf of bread – 0.52 BHD (£1.05)
Milk (1 litre) – 0.62 BHD (£1.26)
Bottled water (1.5 litre) – 0.25 BHD (£0.51)
Draught beer (0.5 litre) – 1.26 BHD (£2.55)
Packet of cigarettes – 2.30 BHD (£4.66)
Petrol (1 litre) – 0.19 BHD (£0.38)
Cinema ticket – 3.50 BHD (£7.09)

Budgeting and Savings

Driving

Bahrain is a small country (the largest of its islands is just 55km/34 miles long and 18km/11miles wide) and much of its landscape is desert. Therefore, driving is by far the most convenient way to get around. Most of Bahrain’s excellent road network is concentrated in and around Manama and the country is connected to Saudi Arabia by the 20km/12 mile-long King Fahd Causeway. There are no restrictions on women driving in Bahrain, however, care should be taken when entering Saudi Arabia via the Causeway, as women are not permitted to drive there. Roads in major towns in Bahrain are generally well maintained and are four to six lanes wide at some points.

The speed limits in Bahrain are 60km/h (40mph) in towns and residential areas, 80-100km/h (50 to 60 mph) on open roads and 120km/h (70mph) on motorways. There are no toll charges on Bahrain’s roads apart from the Causeway where you will pay 2 BHD (£4.20) to cross in a small vehicle. Bear in mind that tourists are not permitted across the Causeway in hired vehicles. International driving licences are accepted only after confirmation from the Traffic & Licensing Directorate, which can be arranged when hiring a vehicle. Otherwise, you must hold a valid Bahraini driving licence in order to drive in Bahrain legally.

Taxis

Short-term visitors to Bahrain may find driving on Manama’s heavily congested roads a little daunting, so taking a taxi is a good way to get around. Taxis in Bahrain are easily identified by their roof signs and orange colour and can be either hailed in the street or pre-booked in advance. Drivers are legally required to calculate the fare by meter, however some drivers may simply come up with a price at random. It’s advisable to ask your driver to switch on the meter before starting your journey.

Buses

Buses in Bahrain are operated by the privately owned Cars Transport Corporation, which is regulated by the government. Travelling by bus is the second most popular mode of transport (after the car) and the network connects most towns, cities and residential areas. However, be aware that routes and timetables are difficult to get hold of and Bahrain’s buses are mainly used by migrant labourers and day workers. Expats may be better off either hiring a car or taking a taxi.

Coaches

There are several coach tour operators in Bahrain which organise air-conditioned trips to popular tourist destinations. For further information on how to book and prices consult the Bahrain’s tourist information website here.

Trains

Due to its small size and a general lack of demand, Bahrain currently has no rail network. However, plans are in place to develop a railway infrastructure which will eventually connect all the Persian Gulf countries.

Trams and Light Rail

Bahrain has no light rail, underground or tram network. Plans to install a 103km long monorail system which will connect Muharraq, Manama, Seef and Isa Town are currently under review.

Air Travel

Bahrain International Airport is situated on Muharraq Island, 12km from Manama. The country’s national carrier is Gulf Air, which flies to destinations worldwide.

Other ways to get around

Hiring a car is the most popular way of getting around in Bahrain. For those wishing to travel further afield, there are several ferry companies which operate between Bahrain and Iran, information on timetables and tickets can be found here. More adventurous travellers may like to take a traditional Bahraini camel ride into the desert or along some of Bahrain’s stunning white sand beaches.

Working Hours

Employees work between 40-48 hours a week in the Kingdom of Bahrain with most offices and businesses operating from 8.30am – 5.30pm. During the month of Ramadan, which varies depending on the moon’s cycle, hours are cut to six per day. This is a legal requirement and should apply to all employees. However, the reduction in hours sometimes only applies to Muslim workers so it is best to check with your employer. Muslims take Friday as their rest day so the weekend in Bahrain is usually Friday and Saturday, with Sunday being a working day.

Holidays

Holiday entitlement is considered generous in Bahrain, despite changes being made to the laws in recent years. Under the Labour Law in 2012, private sector employees who have worked for more than a year in Bahrain are entitled to 30 days paid annual leave which includes weekends. Prior to this, workers were entitled to 21 days excluding weekends.

Public holidays

There are up to 13 public holidays a year which are observed in Bahrain. Muslim festivals are timed depending on the cycles of the moon, so holiday dates may change each year. Most offices and government departments close during these times. Because the weekend in Bahrain is Friday to Saturday, if a public holiday falls on these days a public holiday also falls on the next weekday. For more details, visit the Labour Market Regulatory Authority website.

Public holiday dates

New Year’s Day: 1st January
Eid Al Fitr (End of Ramadan): 15 – 17th June
Eid Al Adha: 21st August – 23rd August
Al Hijra (Islamic New Year): 11th September
Feast of Sacrifice: 1st – 3rd September
Ashoora: 20th September
Milad Un Nabi (The Prophet’s Birthday): 20th November
Bahrain National Day: 16th – 17th December

Visas and eligibility to work

To enter Bahrain, all people who are not native to one of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states (Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudia Arabia and UAE) need a visa. To qualify for a visa, applicants must state their purpose for visiting the country, their nationality and their current address. Most visas for Bahrain must be sponsored, or obtained on your behalf by your company, hotel or travel agent. Unsponsored visas are only granted for specific reasons and to certain nationalities. Most visas must be applied for before travelling to Bahrain. The type and length of visa granted will depend on the purpose of visiting the country. For more details, visit the website.

Tax

There is no income tax in Bahrain, an obvious advantage for foreign workers. In recent years a small ‘social insurance tax’ has been introduced by the Government but is only around 1% of a yearly salary. Capital gains and inherited income is also untaxed. However, expats must pay a municipal tax of 10% based on the value of the property. Bahrain has no VAT except on fuel where a 12% charge is imposed. While tax in Bahrain is considered low, money earned there and sent back to an expat’s home country may be subject to certain taxes.

Pensions

Expats who have lived and worked in Bahrain, or any of the other GCC states, can settle permanently in the country and this is seen as the only way to qualify for a state pension. The law on state pensions was introduced in 1976 and applies to men aged 60 or over and women aged 55 or over. There are various pension schemes available in Bahrain which depend on a worker’s salary and whether they have made contributions to a private fund.

Benefits

The Bahrain social security system mainly exists to help its citizens and there is very little available for expat workers. There are no social security contributions deducted from wages with employees only responsible for building up their pensions. While Bahrainis are able to apply for benefits for unemployment, housing, disability and sickness, foreigners are only eligible for free basic medical care. If it is not covered by your company, taking out private medical insurance is advisable.

Disability

The rights of disabled people are covered by the UN Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities which was ratified by Bahrain in August 2011. The measure was considered an important step towards improving the lives and providing greater opportunities for disabled people. The Disabled Services Centre in Bahrain specialises in employing disabled workers for both the private and non-government sectors. For more details, visit the website.

Business Etiquette

Organisational Structure

Status, hierarchy and wealth are the cornerstones of most Bahraini businesses. Status is acquired through seniority based on a hierarchical structure which is perhaps not surprising as many businesses are run by large families. Decisions are generally made from the top down, although employers strive to reach a consensus with managers before policies are implemented. Bahrainis are used to doing business on an international level and are therefore comfortable and welcoming to expats. Women are significantly better placed in the Bahraini business world than in many other Arab countries and there are increasing numbers of highly educated female workers in traditionally male-dominated business environments. Much of Bahrain’s culture is governed by Islamic moral codes so it is worthwhile familiarising yourself with appropriate customs and rules before doing business there.

Management Style

Managers tend to take an authoritarian role in Bahrain. Employees are not expected to question the decisions that have been reached by senior managers. Although the views of a team will be taken into account, once a decision has been made – it is generally final.

Formality

While Bahrainis are open and friendly towards outsiders, business culture is strictly formal. It is important to address counterparts using titles to show respect. Mr or Mrs/Miss can be used for colleagues and Arabic titles such as ‘Sheikh’ or ‘Hajji’ are often used for senior contacts. If in doubt, ask your Bahraini colleagues how they wish to be addressed. Bahrainis expect expats to make the odd mistake and appreciate the gesture of those attempting to follow the formal codes.

Relationships

Business dealings are based on personal and familial relationships. Outsiders will need to gain the trust of their counterparts before discussing business. A letter of introduction from a mutual acquaintance is considered a polite way to break the ice with new business contacts, particularly if they are in a senior position. The best business relationships build gradually through discreet networking. Bahrainis are open and friendly and initial meetings will be focused upon getting to know each other and establishing trust before business is discussed in any meaningful way. Bahrainis have a non-confrontational communication style guided by social convention, so negotiations often take significantly longer than in western countries.

Dress Code

Business attire is strictly formal. While many Bahraini businessmen wear a traditional thobe or dishadasha (a flowing, ankle-length garment), ghutra (head garment) and agal (a thick black cord worn on top of the ghutra), a smart suit, shirt and tie is equally acceptable and expected for western expats. Foreign women should dress conservatively with shoulders, knees and elbows covered at all times in either a smart trouser suit or long skirt and blouse.

Greetings

Upon meeting your Bahraini colleagues, the usual greeting is “Asalamu alaiykum” (“peace be upon you”) to which you should reply “Wa alaikum as-salam” (“and upon you be peace”) along with a firm handshake. Ensure that you shake with the right hand as the left hand is considered unclean. Bahrainis are tactile and holding hands and kissing between men is common. Before greeting a woman wait for her to extend her hand and if she chooses not to, do not try to shake hands. It is also important that you greet and shake hands with the most senior person first.

Punctuality

Bahrainis have a relaxed attitude towards punctuality and foreigners may find themselves waiting for their business contacts to arrive at a meeting. Lateness is not considered rude in an Arab business setting so try to be patient, even if you have turned up on time. It’s also important not to try and schedule any meetings on Friday, which is a holy day and most businesses will be closed. Be prepared to be flexible as schedules can change without notice.

Meetings

Meetings often involve many people who are well acquainted or related, so discussions can often stray into friendly banter and chit-chat among those who know each other the most. Don’t expect to get down to business straight away. In general Bahrainis have an open-door policy in meetings which means frequent interruptions. Many expats used to a more structured setting may find Bahraini meetings chaotic and long, however it’s a good idea to just go with the flow in order to build a trusting relationship.

Try to arrive at meetings promptly and greet everyone in the room. Meetings in Bahrain generally include coffee, or kahwa, as a ceremony symbolising friendship and participants should wait silently while everyone is served before getting down to business. Try not to arrange meetings too far in advance or in July and August, when many businesspeople leave the country to escape the searing summer heat.

Cultural Sensitivity

Bahrain is considered liberal compared to some Arab countries but newcomers should be knowledgeable and respectful of Islamic culture and traditions. Bahrainis are generally laid-back and welcoming but it is best to keep conversation neutral and steer clear of discussing religion or political unrest in the region. Also bear in mind that Arabs are culturally reluctant to refuse anybody anything, with the word ‘no’ considered aggressive. It is best to simply show a discreet lack of commitment to an issue if you wish to show refusal. Drinking alcohol, even in a meeting in a hotel where it can be permitted, would be also be frowned upon.

Business Language

Arabic is the main language of business in Bahrain. However, English is widely spoken and Bahrainis are happy to conduct meetings in English if foreigners are present. However, it’s good practice to have documents and correspondence translated into Arabic.

Travel

Driving

The speed limits in Bahrain are 60km/h (40mph) in towns and residential areas, 80-100km/h (50 to 60 mph) on open roads and 120km/h (70mph) on motorways. There are no toll charges on Bahrain’s roads apart from the Causeway where you will pay 2 BHD (£3.72) to cross in a small vehicle. Bear in mind that tourists are not permitted across the Causeway in hired vehicles. International driving licences are accepted only after confirmation from the Traffic & Licensing Directorate, which can be arranged when hiring a vehicle. Otherwise, you must hold a valid Bahraini driving licence in order to drive in Bahrain legally.

Taxis

Buses

Coaches

Trains

Trams and Light Rail

Bahrain has no light rail, underground or tram network. Plans to install a 103km long monorail system which will connect Muharraq, Manama, Seef and Isa Town are currently under review.

Air Travel

Bahrain International Airport is situated on Muharraq Island, 12km from Manama. The country’s national carrier is Gulf Air, which flies to destinations worldwide. There are also two budget airlines, Air Arabia and Bahrain Air.

Other ways to get around

Organisational Structure

Management Style

Formality

Relationships

Dress Code

Greetings

Punctuality

Meetings

Cultural Sensitivity

Business Language

Belgium Country Profile

27th July 2019 by jobs.ac.uk 1 Comment

Job Opportunities in Belgium

Are you looking for a new opportunity in Belgium to jumpstart your expat adventure?

jobs.ac.uk offers a wide variety of job options to help you start your new journey, covering jobs from civil services, senior management, marketing and PhDs.

A vast amount of academic roles are advertised with jobs.ac.uk daily.

Browse our current jobs for Belgium and make a change today.

Country fact file

Location: Western Europe
Capital City: Brussels
Population: 11.7 million as of February 2024
Government: Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Currency: Euro
Main Languages: Dutch, French, German
Main Religions: Christianity (Roman Catholicism), Islam, Judaism

The Kingdom of Belgium is a small Western European country bordered by France, Germany, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

It is a federal state divided into distinct linguistic regions with Dutch-speaking Flanders to the north, French-speaking Wallonia to the south and a small German-speaking region in the east.

The Federal government has limited influence in local affairs and power is devolved to the different regions and communities which make up Belgium.

It is said that Belgium has more policy and law makers, international companies, research organisations and think tanks per square foot than anywhere else in the world.

This is not surprising, the capital Brussels is home to NATO’s headquarters and is also the de facto capital of the European Union.

Culture

Despite its small geographical size, Belgium is not a homogeneous country with a single national identity. Since World War II, Belgium has transformed itself into a multicultural, liberal and modern nation.

Its regional languages also influence culture – Flemish Belgians are said to be culturally similar to the Dutch and Germans, whereas in Wallonia there is more of a French way of life.

Belgium is also a nation of expats, which has further added to the cultural diversity of the country. However, it can be said that on the whole, Belgians are modern and well-educated people who are proud of their multicultural country as well as their regional and national traditions.

Popular activities

Leisure time is spent in different ways according to the linguistic regions, but a passion for sport unites all Belgians.

Football is followed with customary European fervour with throngs of Belgian fans travelling to watch the Red Devils (Belgium’s national team) play.

Cycling is very popular and there is a comprehensive network of national cycling routes and accessible flat terrain. Formula 1 is also a national passion, with famous drivers Jacky Ickx and Thierry Boutsen hailing from Belgium.

Family is central to all popular activities in Belgium and leisure time is often spent socialising in restaurants or at home with extended family.

Food and drink

The most well-known national dishes include moules-frites (mussels with fries), carbonnade Flamande (a rich beef and onion stew) stoemp (mashed potato with leeks and carrots) and of course chocolate.

The composition of Belgian chocolate has been regulated by law since 1894 and the sheer variety on offer has earned the country the title of ‘Chocolate Capital of the World.’

Belgium is to beer what France is to wine and there are over 400 different types of native beer to choose from.

Popular brands include Stella Artois lager and Duvel, a blond beer typical of Belgium.

Languages

Belgium is a multi-lingual country. The three official languages are Dutch (often referred to as Flemish or Belgian Dutch), French and German.

Flemish is spoken by 60% of the population, French 33% and German 1%. The capital Brussels is officially bilingual (French/Dutch). Around 10% of the population of Belgium is non-native and languages spoken include English, Italian, Spanish and Arabic.

Overall most Belgians speak a good level of English so foreigners can choose from many ways to communicate.

Accents and dialects

As well as the multitude of languages spoken in Belgium, the different linguistic regions have their own distinct dialects, particularly in the Dutch-speaking regions.

Flemish dialects include Brabantian, West Flemish and East Flemish.

Belgian-French is very similar to the French spoken in France itself so those proficient in the language should have no difficulty making themselves understood.

Weather

Belgium has a temperate climate similar to that of the UK, with cool summers, mild winters and quite a lot of rain.

It is a small country so the climate doesn’t vary much from region to region. The summer months see average temperatures of between 18°C and 22°C and you can expect around 3°C to 10°C in winter.

Safety and security

Belgium has medium levels of crime but rates have climbed in recent years due to increasing racial tensions, especially in Brussels.

The highest incidences of petty crimes against tourists are in Brussels and Bruges so it’s a good idea to keep an eye on your belongings and stay with a group while walking in tourist areas after dark.

However, in general, Belgium is safer than other European countries such as the UK, France and Germany.

System structure

Education in Belgium is delivered by local government according to the different language communities. Schooling options comprise state-run community schools, subsidised public schools (run at the municipal level) and private and international schools (fee-paying).

Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of six to 18 in state schools. Apart from the language of tuition, the communities (Dutch, French and German) have a unified education system with little difference in the curriculum and school policy.

Primary school lasts from age six to twelve when children split off into a range of specialised secondary schools.

Academic year

The academic year begins in September and ends in June (dates vary according to whether the university or college is Dutch or French-speaking).

School holidays generally comprise two weeks at Easter, nine weeks in summer and two weeks at Christmas.

The school day begins at 8.30am and finishes at 3.30pm, Monday to Friday.

Higher education

There are six Dutch-speaking universities, seven French-speaking universities and a number of university colleges and private international institutions in Belgium.

The highest ranking institution is the Dutch-speaking Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven). Responsibility for higher education is devolved to the French and Dutch-speaking communities, with both sharing responsibility for the delivery of education in the bilingual Brussels-Capital region.

Students gain admission to university by acquiring a general diploma at secondary school.

Funding

Higher education is funded at the community and regional levels and universities manage their own budgets with little influence from the government.

Students are charged a comparably low annual tuition fee of around €835/£721 (EU/EEA nationals) and €835/£721 to €4,175/£3,605 (non-EU nationals), depending on the course of study.

Courses

Universities and university colleges offer a two tier system of three-year undergraduate degrees and either ‘research’ or ‘professional’ two-year Master’s degrees, with many programs taught entirely in English, particularly in the Dutch-speaking regions.

PhDs are offered by research universities only and take around four to six years to complete – self-funded PhDs are rare in Belgium, most are supported by the university under a type of employment contract.

Research

Belgium’s position at the heart of the European Union has further stimulated a strong international perspective in research across all disciplines.

The private sector is the primary source of investment in research.

Funding is managed at the community and university level, with the two most prominent research foundations – the FWO (Research Foundation Flanders) and the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS) providing grants and fellowships for EU and international students and researchers.

Primary and secondary education

In all Belgian communities, children are enrolled in primary school (lager onderwijs or enseignement primaire) at age six.

At age twelve they continue to secondary school (secundair onderwijs or enseignement secondaire) which are divided into general, technical, vocational and arts. Assessment is ongoing throughout secondary education and at age 18 students receive a general diploma (for more academic subjects) which facilitates admission to higher education or a technical/vocational qualification for those who wish to enter university colleges or employment.

Preschool

Attending preschool (kleuteronderwijs or enseignement maternelle) is not compulsory in Belgium, however, over 90% of children are enrolled before they start school. Most state-run preschools are attached to primary schools and provide free childcare for children aged 2.5 years and above.

However, state-run preschools are oversubscribed and have long waiting lists, so many parents (particularly expats) end up enrolling their children in private, fee-paying nurseries and kindergartens until they start school.

Geographical Variation

Belgium is considered to have a high cost of living compared to other Western European countries. However, this reputation is not entirely deserved, as both the UK and France have higher living costs.

Although costs for utilities are high, rents in Belgium are reasonable, and significant savings can be made on food and by using the excellent and cheap public transport network.

Brussels is the most expensive place to live in Belgium. This is mainly due to the fact that the capital attracts a lot of short-term expats, which has pushed up rents for prime properties in recent years.

Other pricey areas include Leuven, Mons and Antwerp, but rents and living costs are more manageable in the suburbs and rural areas.

The average research/lecturing gross monthly salary is €3,600 (£3,108) in Belgium, so it is possible to have a reasonable standard of living after you have paid your bills.

Accommodation

Its status at the heart of the EU means that Belgium is a magnet for expats from all over the world. Despite this, rental properties are widely available and rents are reasonable, depending on the property and its location.

There is a broad range of accommodation options, from plush apartments in central Brussels to fully-furnished houses in the suburbs and rural areas.

The majority of expats (and Belgians) choose to rent and the standard lease is up to nine years.

Although there are no restrictions on foreigners wishing to buy property in Belgium, owning a home is not seen as a good investment due to little fluctuation in house prices, as well as high property taxes and legal costs.

The best way to find accommodation in Belgium is either through an online portal such as Immoweb, with a local rental agent or by searching newspaper classifieds.

If you are moving for a job at a university, your Belgian employer will generally help with relocation costs and finding accommodation.

Rental deposit

Most landlords require a security deposit of around three month’s rent in Belgium. This amount is placed in an interest-bearing bank account in the tenant’s name and returned on leaving the property (with any damages deducted).

Property tax

Homeowners (not tenants) must pay an annual tax on their property which is calculated on the presumed annual rental value and decided by the local authorities.

Municipal taxes for refuse collection and other services are levied by regional authorities and are calculated at a rate of 9% of your income tax contributions and automatically deducted from your salary.

Utilities

Belgium has a de-regulated gas and electricity market and there is a wide range of suppliers to choose from. The main supplier of electricity in Belgium is Electrabel.

You can use Brugel or Test Achats to compare prices, deals and packages before signing up. Tap water is safe to drink and water bills are charged on an annual basis.

Belgium has good internet broadband access in nearly all areas and companies such as Belgacom and Telenet offer bundled services which include broadband, mobile phone, landline and cable TV.

The basic cost of utilities (gas, water, electricity, refuse) for an 85m² city centre apartment is around €195.98 (£167.05) per month. Broadband, phone and TV packages start at around €48.80 (£41.80) per month.

TV Licence

TV licences were abolished in the Dutch-speaking regions (Flanders) and Brussels in 2001. In the French-speaking regions (Wallonia) a fee of €100 (£86.12) is charged per household each year. The fee is used to fund Belgium’s French and German public broadcasters, BRF and RTBF.

Healthcare and medical costs

Belgium has a high standard of publicly funded healthcare.

The healthcare system is made up of public health facilities and services, along with private clinics and hospitals.

Healthcare is funded through a national insurance scheme (paid into by all employed and self-employed residents) and the government. However, many Belgians and expats supplement their state medical scheme with a private healthcare insurance policy at a reasonable cost.

All EU/EEA residents can access the Belgian healthcare system for free and get full benefits once they start paying into the national insurance scheme on becoming resident employees.

Those from outside the EU should take out private medical insurance on relocation to Belgium.

Shopping

Belgium has a fantastic range of shopping options and is famous for its large outdoor markets selling fresh produce, clothing and traditional Belgian gifts and chocolate.

You can find a list of the many markets in Brussels here.

The dominant supermarket chains are Carrefour, Delhaize, Cora, Aldi and Lidl. Shops are generally open from Monday to Saturday (until 8pm for supermarkets) and most are closed on Sunday.

Sales tax

The sales tax rate (VAT) in Belgium is currently set at 21% for most goods and services. A reduced rate applies to certain items such as social housing, food, drinks, hotels and medicine.

Price guide

Rent a 1-bedroom apartment in the city centre – €821.57 (£703.96)
Rent a 1-bedroom apartment outside the city centre – €689.43 (£590.74)
Price of apartment per square metre in the city centre – €3,575.75 (£3062.85)
Price of apartment per square metre outside the city centre – €2,859.73 (£2449.44)
Milk (1 litre) – €1.10 (£0.94)
Bottled water (1.5 litre) – €0.88 (£0.75)
Draught beer served in a Restaurant (0.5 litre) – €4.00 (£3.42)
Packet of cigarettes – €8.00 (£6.85)
Petrol (1 litre) – €1.79 (£1.53)
Cinema ticket – €12.00 (£10.28)

Source: www.numbeo.com (accessed February 2024)

Budgeting and saving

Belgium can be expensive, particularly in Brussels, but expats have reported cheaper living costs than in other major European cities.

Food and eating out can be pricey but you can cut costs by shopping in budget supermarkets such as Aldi, Lidl or Smatch which can be found in most urban areas.

Another way to save on shopping, electricals and computing is by using the price comparison site Vergelijk.be (in Dutch).

Driving

Belgium has an extensive road network comprising toll-free motorways and dual carriageways. Speed limits on motorways are 120km/h (70mph) and 50km/h (30mph) in residential areas.

Although roads are well-maintained, Belgians have a reputation for their fast and aggressive driving style so new expats should take extra care, particularly in Brussels.

Signage can also be a problem – in the Brussels region signs are bilingual but in the different regions, they are in either Dutch or French. So it’s a good idea to be aware of place names and other driving rules in both languages before setting out.

Drivers with a valid European Union licence are permitted to drive in Belgium without exchanging their licence for a Belgian one. If your licence was issued in a non-EU country, you must apply for a local licence after six months driving in the country.

The minimum driving age is 18.

Taxis

All Belgian taxis are metered by law and can be recognised by their roof signs (they come in many different colours according to the city or company). It is not common to hail a taxi from the street and drivers are not permitted to pick up passengers within 100 metres of a designated taxi rank.

Buses and coaches

Belgium has an excellent rail network, therefore buses are only generally used for short distances in urban areas.

Bus routes are managed by three companies: De Lijn (Flanders), TEC (Wallonia) and STIB (Brussels). Single tickets or discounted travel cards (see MOBIB smartcard below) for use on all public transport can be purchased from any rail or bus station.

For longer distances, Belgium has a number of privately-operated coach companies which connect towns and cities as well as travelling to neighbouring countries. See the Eurolines website for more information.

Trains

Despite its compact size, Belgium has one of the most extensive rail networks in Europe.

Trains are fast, frequent and punctual. The network is operated by Belgian Rail (NMBS/SNCB) and comprises high speed InterRegio/Intercity trains and efficient local trains.

High speed trains also link Belgium with France, the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, with the Eurostar connecting Brussels with the UK and France.

You can purchase an electronic MOBIB smartcard which can be used for multiple journeys on the entire public transport network.

Trams and light rail

The cities of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent and Charleroi all have efficient and cheap tram/light rail systems.

You can also take the scenic Coastal Tram along the entire length of the Flemish coast (42 miles). Brussels is the only city to have a metro system (Brusselse metro/Métro de Bruxelles), consisting of four lines which connect central Brussels with the outer suburbs.

The metro is operated by the Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB) which also runs the city’s buses and trams.

Air travel

Belgium has five international airports, the busiest being Brussels Zaventem Airport, eight miles north of the city.

Being at the centre of Europe means that the country is well connected to almost all major world destinations. You can also take short hop flights across Europe.

Brussels Airlines (a subsidiary of Lufthansa) is the largest national carrier yet most budget and national airlines fly to and from the capital. Belgium is a very small country so there are no domestic flights, unless you choose to travel by private plane or helicopter. For journeys across Belgium – take the train.

Other ways to get around

Like their Dutch neighbours, Belgians are passionate about cycling. Flanders in particular is considered a bicycle lover’s dream, with flat terrain and hundreds of national cycling routes and paths.

Many railway stations have bicycles for rent and you can also reserve one to be waiting for you at the end of your train journey. Care should be taken when cycling around Brussels, where cars rule the roads.

Working hours

By law, workers in Belgium can only work a maximum of eight hours a day and 40 hours a week. This is higher than many Western countries and probably accounts for the fact that Belgian workers are the most productive in the EU.

Employees generally work from 8am-6pm Monday to Friday with an hour’s lunch break. Working conditions vary according to region, with the Dutch-speaking regions tending towards a more flexible approach than the French-speaking areas.

Maternity pay for mothers is calculated as 82% of a person’s salary for the first 30 days after giving birth which goes down to 75% after that.

Fathers are entitled to ten days paternity leave which must be taken within four months of the child’s birth.

Holidays

Workers in Belgium must have worked as salaried employees for the year before a holiday can be taken. May expats are therefore unlikely to be entitled to a holiday in their first year of employment, unless an agreement can be reached with the employer.

The number of days a worker can take off depends on the amount of time spent at work the previous year. This generally equates to four week’s holiday accrued over a full year of work.

Public holidays

There are ten public holidays in Belgium as well as several unofficial holidays, including the December Solstice and Christmas Eve, which many employers recognise.

Public holiday dates

New Year’s Day: 1st January
Easter Monday: 1st April
Labour Day: 1st May
Ascension Day: 9th May
Whit Monday: 20th May
National Day: 21st July
Assumption Day: 15th August
All Saints’ Day: 1st November
Armistice Day: 11^th November
Christmas Day: 25^th December

Visas and eligibility

All citizens of the EU/EEA can travel freely to Belgium and do not need a work permit. Generally, all citizens from outside EU/EEA countries require a visa to enter Belgium and a permit to work.

If this applies to you, then you will need to apply for one of three visas, depending on your reason to enter Belgium.

The visa you will most likely require if you intend to work in the country is a long-term visa for which you will need a firm offer of employment.

Applications for visas must be applied for in your home country before arriving in Belgium.

Tax

Taxation in Belgium is among the highest in Europe, with a rate of 50% for the highest earners compared to around 45% in other Western countries.

Income and company taxes are collected by the state while local authorities are responsible for collecting property tax and municipal tax.

Expats can benefit from a special tax status which can include generous allowances. To find out if you are eligible for tax breaks, contact The Ministry of Finance (Service Public Federal Finances).

The Belgium tax system is complex for expats but generally, you will have to pay income tax on your worldwide income if you are living in the country for at least six months.

Expats who meet certain criteria, for example, someone employed by a scientific research centre on a temporary basis, can register to pay tax on Belgian-only related income.

The tax year runs from 1^st January to 31^st December each year.

You can find out more about taxes at Belgium’s Official Information and Services website.

Benefits

By law, all workers in Belgium contribute to unemployment insurance which is shared by both employees and employers.

EU citizens who have moved to Belgium may be entitled to three months’ unemployment benefit from their native country. To find out if you are eligible for benefits, you can enquire at the country’s many trade-union run unemployment agencies or the state-run Auxiliary Fund for Payment of Unemployment Benefits.

Contributions to the welfare state are made by employers who deduct it automatically from your monthly wage which accounts for around 25% of your pay.

Expats who make contributions will be entitled to benefits, medical care and loss of work.

Pensions

The state pension (rustpensioen), is allocated to people when they reach 65 but it can be claimed earlier if someone has been working for more than 38 years.

Pension contributions account for around 16% of a person’s wages, the burden of which is shared between the employee and employer.

The National Pensions Office (ONP or RVP) decides the amount each person receives.

A general rule of thumb, a single person will receive 60% of their average wage.

Disability

In 2009, Belgium signed the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which built on the country’s 1963 commitment to improve the opportunities of disabled people.

Disabled rights are protected by both regional and federal law.

On a community level, there are also institutions promoting disabled rights covering the Flemish, French and German-speaking communities.

On a local level, people can apply for Disabled Persons Status, entitling them to an allowance and a parking card, with their municipal office.

Organisational structure

Belgium is an affluent and modern country, home to multinationals, government organisations and businesses from all over the world.

This means that business culture is also highly diverse, with many nationalities influencing how things are done. However, Belgian businesses in the Flanders region are considered to have a more Dutch attitude to business, with a flatter, egalitarian structure.

Businesses in French-speaking Belgium tend to be more hierarchical, similar to business culture in France.

Management style

Management styles differ according to region and type of business. Managers can range from being authoritarian, where a senior team take decisions and delegate tasks, to more egalitarian with a spirit of consensus.

However, across Belgium, you will find that there is a commitment to teamwork and participatory management, where even though decisions are made at the top, each team member is involved in the process.

Belgian managers are known for being thorough, facts, figures and solid research are integral to the decision-making process.

Formality

Belgians are considered to be quite formal and conservative in their approach to business. You should therefore use titles (Mr, Mrs, Miss in Flanders and Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle in French-speaking companies) until invited to do otherwise.

French-speaking regions tend to be more formal than Flanders and take a French approach to business, where you should show deference to superiors.

Relationships

With a long history of international trade and multiculturalism, Belgians are known for being skilled negotiators and are used to working with foreigners.

However, this does not mean that social conventions and politeness are overlooked, Belgians are flexible and will aim to strike a deal which suits everyone.

It’s also worth bearing in mind that Belgians like to keep their work and private lives separate, so try not to encroach on their time outside of working hours.

Dress code

Belgians take personal appearance very seriously and looking polished will help you to earn respect. Smart and conservative attire for work is expected.

Men generally wear expensive and stylish suits with a tie and women a trousers or skirt suits or smart dress.

Greetings

When greeting your Belgian colleagues in all regions, a handshake is appropriate for both men and women.

The French custom of ‘air kissing’ is not common in the workplace, even in Wallonia. Kissing and hugging is usually reserved for friends and family.

Punctuality

Punctuality is very important in Belgium and good time-keeping is essential if you want to make a good impression.

Meetings always start on time, so it is expected that if you are going to be late, you call ahead to apologise.

Meetings

Depending on the business setting, meetings tend to be formal and well-structured in Belgium. You can expect meetings to start with some polite small talk but then to follow a strict agenda thereafter.

Meetings are focused on the dissemination of information to staff and are often led by a team leader or manager. That said, they often involve people from many different nationalities – particularly in Brussels – so you can often expect quite a mix of cultures and styles at the meeting table.

Always ensure you are always on time for meetings and prepared with the correct facts, figures and documents.

Cultural sensitivity

Belgium is divided linguistically, but Belgians see themselves as Belgians, rather than Dutch or French.

Try to avoid making negative comments or comparisons about the culture of each region and how they compare to each other (or France and the Netherlands).

Belgians are also quite reserved and do not take kindly to overly personal questions.

Business language

The main business languages in Belgium are Dutch, French and German. However, Belgium is a country of expats and also home to a vast range of international companies.

Therefore, English is often used as a ‘bridging’ language in both professional and personal settings. You will find that most Belgians speak English very well.

When emailing or telephoning, always use the language of the region (Dutch in Flanders or French in Walloon) but if you are not confident in either – stick to English.

Belgium has a varied cuisine which is heavily influenced by French, Dutch and German flavours and dishes. However, its position as a world centre means that you can find almost any cuisine, particularly in Brussels. The most well-known national dishes include moules-frites (mussels with fries), carbonnade Flamande (a rich beef and onion stew) stoemp (mashed potato with leeks and carrots) and of course chocolate.